{"id":694,"date":"2026-10-26T05:18:11","date_gmt":"2026-10-26T05:18:11","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-erfurt-hebrew-bibles-and-the-ashkenazi-scribal-tradition\/"},"modified":"2026-10-26T05:18:11","modified_gmt":"2026-10-26T05:18:11","slug":"the-erfurt-hebrew-bibles-and-the-ashkenazi-scribal-tradition","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-erfurt-hebrew-bibles-and-the-ashkenazi-scribal-tradition\/","title":{"rendered":"The Erfurt Hebrew Bibles and the Ashkenazi Scribal Tradition"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Among the Hebrew manuscripts of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin is a group of books that once belonged to the Jewish community of Erfurt, a trading city in Thuringia in central Germany. They include three complete Bibles, a Pentateuch with the Five Scrolls and the prophetic readings, four Torah scrolls, a book of Masorah, a manuscript of the Tosefta, two copies of the commentary of Rashi, a festival prayer book and a miscellany of legal texts that also contains a Hebrew collection of fables.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-1\"><a href=\"#note-1\">1<\/a><\/sup> The community that owned them was destroyed in March 1349, in the violence that accompanied the arrival of the Black Death in Germany, and the books passed into the hands of the city council. They remained in Erfurt for more than five centuries before the Prussian state bought them for the Royal Library in Berlin in 1880.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-2\"><a href=\"#note-2\">2<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Bibles of this collection are known to scholars as Erfurt 1, Erfurt 2 and Erfurt 3, with the Pentateuch counted as Erfurt 4. Two of them are among the largest Hebrew books produced in the Middle Ages, and together they offer an unusually complete view of how the Hebrew Bible was copied, vocalised and annotated in medieval Ashkenaz, the Jewish cultural area of the Rhineland, northern France and the German lands. This article describes the manuscripts, the community that used them, their later history in Christian hands, and what they show about the Ashkenazi scribal tradition and its relation to the Tiberian Masorah.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group at-a-glance\"><div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\">\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"at-a-glance\">At a glance<\/h3>\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\n<li><strong>About 1000\u20131100:<\/strong> Erfurt 3, a Bible with Masorah written in an eastern square hand, is produced; it later reaches Ashkenaz.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>13th century:<\/strong> Erfurt 2, a giant Ashkenazi Bible with Targum and figured Masorah, and the Pentateuch Erfurt 4 are written.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>1343:<\/strong> Erfurt 1, a two-volume Bible with Targum and full Masorah, is completed; its vocaliser signs a long colophon.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>21 March 1349:<\/strong> During the Black Death pogrom the Erfurt community is destroyed and its books pass to the city council.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>1706:<\/strong> Michaelis and Kall publish the first study of the Erfurt Hebrew Bibles.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>1880:<\/strong> The Prussian state buys fifteen Erfurt Hebrew manuscripts for the Royal Library in Berlin.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>Today:<\/strong> The manuscripts are in the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin; Erfurt\u2019s medieval Jewish sites are a World Heritage property.<\/li>\n\n<\/ul>\n\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-jewish-community-of-medieval-erfurt\">The Jewish Community of Medieval Erfurt<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Jews are recorded in Erfurt from the late eleventh or early twelfth century, and by the thirteenth century the community was one of the more substantial in central Germany. Erfurt stood on the trade route that ran from the Rhine eastwards towards Leipzig and Bohemia, and its Jewish residents were engaged in moneylending, trade and the crafts permitted to them. The community lived in a quarter close to the centre of the town, near the merchants\u2019 bridge and the town hall, and its principal institutions were a synagogue, a ritual bath and a cemetery.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-3\"><a href=\"#note-3\">3<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The synagogue survives. Its oldest walls date from the late eleventh century, and the building was enlarged in the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. After 1349 it was converted into a warehouse, and later into a restaurant and dance hall, so that its earlier use was forgotten until research in the late twentieth century identified it. It was restored and opened as a museum in 2009.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-4\"><a href=\"#note-4\">4<\/a><\/sup> In 1998, during building work in the former Jewish quarter, a hoard of coins, silver vessels and jewellery was found hidden in a wall; it is thought to have been concealed by a member of the community at the time of the pogrom, and it includes a gold wedding ring of the type used in Ashkenazi marriages.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-5\"><a href=\"#note-5\">5<\/a><\/sup> A ritual bath of the thirteenth century was excavated near the river in 2007. These buildings and finds were inscribed together on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2023 under the title Jewish-Medieval Heritage of Erfurt.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-6\"><a href=\"#note-6\">6<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The manuscripts are the third part of this inheritance. Unlike the buildings, they record the intellectual life of the community directly: what it read, how its scribes worked, and which texts it regarded as necessary for prayer, study and the reading of the Law in the synagogue. For a short introduction to the Ashkenazi communities as a whole, readers may consult the site\u2019s page on <a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/ashkenazi.html\">Ashkenazi Jewry<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-collection-and-its-history\">The Collection and Its History<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"from-the-pogrom-to-the-city-council\">From the Pogrom to the City Council<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The pogrom took place on 21 March 1349. Rumours that Jews had caused the plague by poisoning wells had spread through the German towns in 1348 and 1349, and in many places the local population attacked Jewish communities before the plague itself arrived. In Erfurt the violence came before the plague itself; the historians of the city estimate that up to nine hundred people died.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-7\"><a href=\"#note-7\">7<\/a><\/sup> The property of the dead and the departed was seized, and the books came into the possession of the city council. A small Jewish community was re-established in Erfurt in 1354, but it did not recover the manuscripts, and in 1453 the council withdrew its protection from the second community, after which Jews were no longer tolerated in the city.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-8\"><a href=\"#note-8\">8<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-9\"><a href=\"#note-9\">9<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-10\"><a href=\"#note-10\">10<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The books were kept in the council\u2019s library. It is not clear how much use was made of them in the following century and a half, but there is evidence that Christian scholars consulted at least some of them. In Erfurt 2 there are Latin and German words written between the lines of the Hebrew text in a sixteenth-century hand, which shows that a Christian reader with some knowledge of Hebrew was working through the book in the period when the study of Hebrew was spreading in the German universities.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-11\"><a href=\"#note-11\">11<\/a><\/sup> Erfurt had a university from 1392, and it was one of the centres of humanist learning in Germany in the early sixteenth century. The large Bibles were rebound about 1590; the year is stamped into the leather of the bindings of Erfurt 1 and, it seems, Erfurt 2.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-12\"><a href=\"#note-12\">12<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-13\"><a href=\"#note-13\">13<\/a><\/sup> One of these bindings is decorated with a Christian image, a Crucifixion with the words <em>Ecce Agnus Dei<\/em>, which illustrates plainly that the books were now the property of a Christian institution.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-14\"><a href=\"#note-14\">14<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-ministerial-library-and-the-first-descriptions\">The Ministerial Library and the First Descriptions<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the second half of the seventeenth century the manuscripts were transferred to the library of the Lutheran ministry of Erfurt, the Evangelisches Ministerium, which was housed in the former Augustinian monastery.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-15\"><a href=\"#note-15\">15<\/a><\/sup> There they attracted the attention of Protestant Hebraists. In 1706 Johann Heinrich Michaelis and Abraham Kall published at Halle a dissertation on Hebrew biblical manuscripts which dealt principally with the Erfurt codices.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-16\"><a href=\"#note-16\">16<\/a><\/sup> This Michaelis was the Halle orientalist of that name who died in 1738, not his more famous grandson, Johann Heinrich Michaelis of G\u00f6ttingen. The dissertation recorded, among other things, that two gatherings of Erfurt 3 containing the end of Jeremiah and the beginning of Ezekiel were already missing.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-17\"><a href=\"#note-17\">17<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Later in the eighteenth century the Erfurt Bibles were included in the great collation undertaken by Benjamin Kennicott at Oxford, who listed the manuscripts that he and his assistants had examined. Erfurt 3 appears in his list as codex 602.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-18\"><a href=\"#note-18\">18<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-19\"><a href=\"#note-19\">19<\/a><\/sup> The project, described on this site in the article on <a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/kennicott-de-rossi-and-the-eighteenth-century-collations-of-hebrew-manuscripts\/\">Kennicott, De Rossi and the Eighteenth-Century Collations of Hebrew Manuscripts<\/a>, recorded variants of the consonantal text but paid little attention to vocalisation or Masorah, so that the features of the Erfurt Bibles that are of most interest today were not described in it. Between 1800 and 1803 Johann Joachim Bellermann published a description of the libraries and collections of Erfurt that included an account of the Hebrew manuscripts.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-20\"><a href=\"#note-20\">20<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"lagarde-steinschneider-and-the-sale-to-berlin\">Lagarde, Steinschneider and the Sale to Berlin<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the nineteenth century the manuscripts were described in more detail. Adolph Jaraczewsky included a list of them in his history of the Jews of Erfurt in 1868.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-21\"><a href=\"#note-21\">21<\/a><\/sup> In 1877 the orientalist Paul de Lagarde, who was then working on the text of the Targums and the Greek Bible, published notes on the Hebrew manuscripts of Erfurt in his collection <em>Symmicta<\/em>; his notes are still used to identify the contents of the first volume of Erfurt 1, which is now too badly damaged to be consulted.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-22\"><a href=\"#note-22\">22<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-23\"><a href=\"#note-23\">23<\/a><\/sup> In 1878 Moritz Steinschneider included the manuscripts in his catalogue of the Hebrew manuscripts of the Royal Library in Berlin, although at that date they had not yet been bought.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-24\"><a href=\"#note-24\">24<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The purchase took place in 1880, when the Prussian state bought fifteen Hebrew manuscripts from the Erfurt ministry for the Royal Library. The reason given was the need to conserve them properly. The collection was given the shelf marks Ms. or. fol. 1210 to 1224 and Ms. or. quart. 685, with the Bibles at the beginning of the series.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-25\"><a href=\"#note-25\">25<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-26\"><a href=\"#note-26\">26<\/a><\/sup> During and after the Second World War part of the collection was evacuated from Berlin; a customs stamp from Marburg in Erfurt 3 records that it was among the books held in West Germany between 1945 and the reunification of the Berlin collections.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-27\"><a href=\"#note-27\">27<\/a><\/sup> Since 2018 the Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, in a project led by Annett Martini, has published detailed descriptions of every manuscript in the collection, on which much of the following account relies.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-28\"><a href=\"#note-28\">28<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"erfurt-1-the-giant-bible-of-1343\">Erfurt 1: The Giant Bible of 1343<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"size-and-layout\">Size and Layout<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Erfurt 1, now Ms. or. fol. 1210 and 1211, is a complete Hebrew Bible in two volumes. The first volume has 585 leaves and the second 546. Each leaf measures about 62 by 47 centimetres, and the bound volumes weigh about fifty kilograms each. The Staatsbibliothek describes it as the largest Hebrew manuscript on parchment in its possession, and the Erfurt city historians have estimated that the skins of more than eleven hundred animals were needed to make the parchment.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-29\"><a href=\"#note-29\">29<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-30\"><a href=\"#note-30\">30<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The page is laid out in three columns of thirty lines. The Masorah parva, the brief marginal notes on spelling and frequency, stands beside the outer text column, on the right of the verso and on the left of the recto. The Masorah magna, the longer notes that list the occurrences of a word or form, runs in two lines above the columns and three lines below them.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-31\"><a href=\"#note-31\">31<\/a><\/sup> The arrangement is the same in principle as that of the great Tiberian codices, and readers unfamiliar with the two kinds of Masorah may find it helpful to consult the article on <a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-masorah-parva-and-masorah-magna\/\">The Masorah Parva and Masorah Magna<\/a>. In the Pentateuch the Aramaic translation of Onkelos is written verse by verse after the Hebrew, as was customary in Ashkenazi Bibles intended for study and for the preparation of the weekly reading.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-32\"><a href=\"#note-32\">32<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"contents-and-damage\">Contents and Damage<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The first volume, according to Lagarde\u2019s notes, contains the Pentateuch, the Former Prophets and Isaiah; the second contains Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the Twelve Minor Prophets and the Writings. The order of the Writings is that of the Talmud and of many Ashkenazi manuscripts: Ruth stands first, before the Psalms, and Chronicles closes the Bible. Two short passages are missing, from Isaiah and from the second chapter of First Chronicles, and the opening of Genesis to the beginning of chapter six is present twice. The seven leaves of the second copy of Genesis were probably trial pages, drawn up before the main work and later bound in with the first volume.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-33\"><a href=\"#note-33\">33<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Both volumes have suffered. The first bears marks of fire and of the water used to extinguish it, and it is so badly damaged that it has been withdrawn from use while conservation is planned. The second volume was restored between 1999 and 2007 and is now kept unbound in its gatherings.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-34\"><a href=\"#note-34\">34<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-35\"><a href=\"#note-35\">35<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-colophon\">The Colophon<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At the end of the second volume the vocaliser of the manuscript wrote a colophon partly in rhymed prose. He states that he had finished the vocalisation and the Masorah parva at the beginning of the sixth month of the year, and that he then completed the Masorah magna, finishing the work on a Thursday, the twenty-fourth day of Adar, in the year 5103 of the Jewish era, which corresponds to 1343. He gives his name as Samson, and he asks the reader to correct his unintended errors with good will and to pray that his deliberate faults may be forgiven, quoting the verse from the Psalms, \u201cWho can discern his errors? Clear me from hidden faults.\u201d He also records that the book was written for heirs whose names he gives, with a wish that it might remain in their families for generations.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-36\"><a href=\"#note-36\">36<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The colophon makes an important distinction. The person who wrote the consonantal text and the person who added the vowels, accents and Masorah were not necessarily the same, and in Ashkenazi practice they often were not. The consonantal text was the work of a scribe, a <em>sofer<\/em>; the vowel points, accents and Masorah were the work of a <em>naqdan<\/em>, a punctuator. The site\u2019s pages on the <a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/soferim.html\">soferim<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/nakdanim.html\">naqdanim<\/a> describe these two crafts more generally. In Erfurt 1 the colophon is that of the naqdan, and it shows him treating the Masorah as a separate and laborious stage of the work, completed some months after the vowels.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-37\"><a href=\"#note-37\">37<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-38\"><a href=\"#note-38\">38<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"micrography\">Micrography<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Masorah of Erfurt 1 is not only written in lines. At the beginnings of books and on the first and last leaves of many gatherings, the naqdan wrote the notes in tiny script shaped into ornamental figures and patterns.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-39\"><a href=\"#note-39\">39<\/a><\/sup> This technique, known as micrography, was used in Hebrew manuscripts from the ninth or tenth century onwards and was particularly developed in Ashkenaz, where the figures often include animals, fabulous creatures and architectural frames.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-40\"><a href=\"#note-40\">40<\/a><\/sup> The subject is treated at length in the site\u2019s article on <a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/biblical-micrography-and-the-masorah-figurata\/\">Biblical Micrography and the Masorah Figurata<\/a>, and it need only be noted here that the Erfurt Bibles are among the principal examples of the Ashkenazi form.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"erfurt-2-a-giant-bible-of-the-thirteenth-century\">Erfurt 2: A Giant Bible of the Thirteenth Century<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Erfurt 2, Ms. or. fol. 1212, is a single volume of 588 leaves, each measuring about 54 by 38 centimetres. It was written in Ashkenaz in the thirteenth century in a German square hand, and like Erfurt 1 it contains the Targum of Onkelos verse by verse in the Pentateuch, with the Masorah parva and Masorah magna throughout.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-41\"><a href=\"#note-41\">41<\/a><\/sup> The first leaf is a title page decorated with micrography, and the descriptions of the manuscript note that this leaf differs in the arrangement of its Masorah from the rest of the book, so that it too may have been a trial piece later combined with the main work.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-42\"><a href=\"#note-42\">42<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Erfurt city historians describe Erfurt 2 as a giant among medieval Bible manuscripts and draw attention to its many micrographic figures, which include fabulous beasts and grotesques formed from the letters of the Masorah.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-43\"><a href=\"#note-43\">43<\/a><\/sup> This manuscript also preserves the clearest evidence of Christian study in Erfurt: the sixteenth-century interlinear translations into Latin and German already mentioned.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-44\"><a href=\"#note-44\">44<\/a><\/sup> In the order of its books, Erfurt 2 places Jeremiah and Ezekiel before Isaiah, the order given in the Babylonian Talmud, and in the Writings it follows a sequence in which the Five Scrolls stand together.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-45\"><a href=\"#note-45\">45<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"erfurt-3-an-eastern-bible-in-ashkenaz\">Erfurt 3: An Eastern Bible in Ashkenaz<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Erfurt 3, Ms. or. fol. 1213, is the oldest of the three Bibles and the most puzzling. It has 561 leaves measuring about 40 by 31 centimetres, written mostly in three columns of twenty-nine to thirty-one lines, with Job and Proverbs in two columns and the Psalms in one or two. The Erfurt city historians date it to about 1100, or at least to the twelfth century, while the Freie Universit\u00e4t description assigns it to the tenth or eleventh century and identifies its script as an eastern book hand, that is, a hand of the type used in the Near East rather than in Germany.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-46\"><a href=\"#note-46\">46<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-47\"><a href=\"#note-47\">47<\/a><\/sup> If the latter view is correct, Erfurt 3 was written in the Near East and brought to Ashkenaz, where it came to be owned by the Erfurt community; a note of ownership near the end names one Rabbi Nahman son of Rabbi Ephraim.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-48\"><a href=\"#note-48\">48<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The manuscript has lost several gatherings. The end of Second Samuel, much of Isaiah and the passage from the end of Jeremiah to the eighth chapter of Ezekiel are missing, the last having been lost before 1706, when Michaelis and Kall noted the gap. The book was rebound in the early eighteenth century, and it bears traces of fire, soot and water.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-49\"><a href=\"#note-49\">49<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-50\"><a href=\"#note-50\">50<\/a><\/sup> Its Masorah is written in one to ten lines above, below and beside the columns, partly in micrography, and in places it has faded almost to invisibility.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-51\"><a href=\"#note-51\">51<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Erfurt 3 includes several features associated with the Masoretic tradition of the Near East. At the end of Deuteronomy the total number of verses in the Torah is recorded as 5,844 within a frame drawn in red, and at the end of Ezekiel the last words of the book are written in large letters, with the number of verses in the book, 1,273, given in large hollow letters beneath. Some letters of the text are also provided with the small crowns, <em>tagin<\/em>, that are normally reserved for Torah scrolls.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-52\"><a href=\"#note-52\">52<\/a><\/sup> The verse totals are of the kind discussed in the article on <a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-masorah-finalis-and-the-closing-apparatus-of-the-hebrew-bible\/\">The Masorah Finalis and the Closing Apparatus of the Hebrew Bible<\/a>. Because it was collated by Kennicott and studied by Lagarde, Erfurt 3 was for a long period one of the best known of the Erfurt Bibles, and it remains important as a witness to the movement of manuscripts from the eastern centres of Masoretic learning to the Jewish communities of Europe.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-53\"><a href=\"#note-53\">53<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-54\"><a href=\"#note-54\">54<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-pentateuch-the-torah-scrolls-and-the-book-of-masorah\">The Pentateuch, the Torah Scrolls and the Book of Masorah<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Erfurt 4, Ms. or. fol. 1214, is a thirteenth-century Ashkenazi volume of 282 leaves containing the Pentateuch with the Targum of Onkelos verse by verse, the Five Scrolls, the prophetic readings for Sabbaths and festivals, and part of the book of Job. The beginning of Genesis is missing. The prophetic readings are of particular interest, because the selection does not follow a single tradition: some readings agree with the Ashkenazi custom, some with the Sephardi, a few with the Byzantine Jewish custom, and some cannot be assigned to any known custom. Several of the festival readings are given with an Aramaic translation, reflecting the older practice of translating the prophetic reading aloud in the synagogue.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-55\"><a href=\"#note-55\">55<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The four Torah scrolls, Ms. or. fol. 1215 to 1218, date from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The best preserved, Ms. or. fol. 1215, has sheets measuring about 78 by 59 centimetres, with three columns of forty-eight lines on each sheet, and the Song of the Sea and the Song of Moses are laid out in the special patterns required for them.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-56\"><a href=\"#note-56\">56<\/a><\/sup> Franz Hubmann and Josef Oesch, who examined the division of the text in these scrolls, found that the arrangement of open and closed sections follows in large measure the rulings of Maimonides, with variants of its own.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-57\"><a href=\"#note-57\">57<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-58\"><a href=\"#note-58\">58<\/a><\/sup> This is an important observation, because Maimonides had based his list of sections on a Tiberian codex that he regarded as authoritative, generally identified with the Aleppo Codex, and the Erfurt scrolls show how far that standard had been accepted in Ashkenaz by the fourteenth century. The background is set out in the article on <a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-aleppo-codex-and-the-tiberian-standard\/\">The Aleppo Codex and the Tiberian Standard<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The book of Masorah, Ms. or. fol. 1219, is a paper manuscript of 111 leaves, written in Ashkenazi semi-cursive hands of the late fourteenth or early fifteenth century. It contains the Masorah parva for the whole Bible arranged in five columns, with many additions, followed by a list of words written with the letter sin. Its first leaf names Kalonymus the Naqdan, son of Eliezer, and the watermarks in its paper belong to a type found in the second half of the fourteenth century.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-59\"><a href=\"#note-59\">59<\/a><\/sup> Because of its date it cannot have belonged to the community destroyed in 1349, and it must have come into the collection from the second community or by some other route. It illustrates a characteristic Ashkenazi practice: the Masorah was not only copied in the margins of Bibles but was also gathered into handbooks for the use of punctuators.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-60\"><a href=\"#note-60\">60<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-61\"><a href=\"#note-61\">61<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-ashkenazi-scribal-tradition\">The Ashkenazi Scribal Tradition<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"scribes-and-punctuators\">Scribes and Punctuators<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Erfurt manuscripts belong to a scribal culture that had developed in the Rhineland and northern France from the tenth and eleventh centuries. Its centres were the communities of Mainz, Worms and Speyer, together with the schools of northern France associated with Rashi and his successors. In these communities the copying of biblical books was governed by the rules for Torah scrolls set out in the Talmud and in the minor tractate <em>Soferim<\/em>, and by the Masoretic tradition that had reached Europe from the Near East, partly through manuscripts and partly through compilations of Masoretic notes.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-62\"><a href=\"#note-62\">62<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-63\"><a href=\"#note-63\">63<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The division of labour between the sofer and the naqdan, which the Erfurt 1 colophon records, was typical of Ashkenaz. The scribe prepared the parchment, ruled it and wrote the consonants. The naqdan, who might be a separate craftsman, added the vowel points and accents, and then the Masorah in the margins. Codicological studies of dated Hebrew manuscripts by Malachi Beit-Ari\u00e9 have shown that colophons naming both a scribe and a punctuator are much more common in Ashkenaz than in the Sephardi or eastern regions, and that Ashkenazi Bibles frequently show two or more hands at work.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-64\"><a href=\"#note-64\">64<\/a><\/sup> The large format, the three-column layout and the inclusion of the Targum in the Pentateuch are likewise characteristic of Ashkenazi Bibles of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-65\"><a href=\"#note-65\">65<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-66\"><a href=\"#note-66\">66<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-naqdanim-and-their-treatises\">The Naqdanim and Their Treatises<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Ashkenazi naqdanim were not only craftsmen. Several of them composed treatises on the rules of vocalisation and accentuation, intended to guide those who pointed biblical manuscripts. The best known is Samson the Naqdan, whose <em>\u1e24ibbur ha-Qonim<\/em> was written in the thirteenth century, and Yekutiel ben Judah ha-Kohen, whose <em>\u02bfEin ha-Qore<\/em>, written around the end of the same century, discusses the correct reading of the biblical text and corrects errors that he found in the manuscripts of his day.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-67\"><a href=\"#note-67\">67<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-68\"><a href=\"#note-68\">68<\/a><\/sup> The work of Moses ha-Naqdan of England, the <em>Darkhei ha-Niqqud ve-ha-Neginot<\/em>, belongs to the same tradition.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-69\"><a href=\"#note-69\">69<\/a><\/sup> It is not known whether the Samson who signed the colophon of Erfurt 1 had any connection with the earlier author of the same name, and the name was common enough that no connection should be assumed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These treatises show that the Ashkenazi punctuators knew the Tiberian system well and regarded it as the standard. They also show that they were aware of a difficulty. The vowel system of the Tiberian Masoretes reflected the pronunciation of Hebrew in Tiberias in the ninth and tenth centuries, which distinguished seven vowel qualities. The Hebrew pronunciation of medieval Ashkenaz did not distinguish all of these in the same way. In particular, the vowels marked by patah and qamets, and those marked by segol and tsere, were not always kept apart in speech, and punctuators who relied on their own pronunciation could confuse them.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-70\"><a href=\"#note-70\">70<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"ashkenazi-features-in-the-text\">Ashkenazi Features in the Text<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ilan Eldar\u2019s study of the Hebrew language tradition of medieval Ashkenaz, based on the treatises of the naqdanim and on Ashkenazi manuscripts, showed that the vocalisation of Ashkenazi Bibles often departs from the Tiberian norm in ways that reflect the local pronunciation. Interchanges between the vowel signs mentioned above are the most frequent, but there are also differences in the use of the shewa and of the secondary stress mark, the <em>ga\u02bfya<\/em>, and in the placing of the accents.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-71\"><a href=\"#note-71\">71<\/a><\/sup> The Erfurt Bibles, which are large, carefully made and provided with full Masorah, are among the more conservative representatives of this tradition, but they are not free of such features.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-72\"><a href=\"#note-72\">72<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Jordan Penkower, who has made detailed studies of the Masoretic text of the Pentateuch in medieval manuscripts, examined the Erfurt Bibles and Torah scrolls as witnesses to the Ashkenazi Pentateuch tradition. His work concerns in particular the spelling of words with or without the vowel letters, the division into open and closed sections, and other features that were fixed in the Tiberian tradition but transmitted with some variation in Europe.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-73\"><a href=\"#note-73\">73<\/a><\/sup> The Erfurt codices allow such comparisons to be made within a single collection that spans more than two centuries, from the eastern Bible Erfurt 3 to the dated Bible of 1343 and the scrolls of the fourteenth century.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-masorah-in-ashkenaz\">The Masorah in Ashkenaz<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Masorah in Ashkenazi Bibles presents a further set of questions. The notes were copied from earlier models, but the naqdanim also abbreviated, expanded and rearranged them, and in some cases they added notes that do not correspond to the text of the manuscript in which they stand. Israel Yeivin, in his introduction to the Tiberian Masorah, observed that the Masorah of later European manuscripts frequently contradicts the text beside it, because the punctuator copied notes from one model while the scribe had followed another.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-74\"><a href=\"#note-74\">74<\/a><\/sup> The same was observed by Elias Levita in the sixteenth century, who had examined many such manuscripts and who discussed the reliability of the Masorah in his <em>Masoret ha-Masoret<\/em>; the site\u2019s article on <a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/elias-levita-and-the-masoret-ha-masoret-of-1538\/\">Elias Levita and the Masoret ha-Masoret of 1538<\/a> describes his conclusions.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-75\"><a href=\"#note-75\">75<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The use of micrography adds a further complication. When the Masorah magna was written in the shape of an animal, a vine scroll or an architectural frame, the demands of the design could take precedence over the completeness of the notes, and words were sometimes repeated or omitted to fill a line. The Masorah in such passages was decorative as well as informative, and the naqdan\u2019s skill was shown in both respects.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-76\"><a href=\"#note-76\">76<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-77\"><a href=\"#note-77\">77<\/a><\/sup> For the scholar today, this means that the Masorah of an Ashkenazi Bible cannot simply be read as a record of the text it accompanies; each note has to be compared with the Masoretic tradition as known from the Tiberian codices.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-erfurt-bibles-and-the-tiberian-tradition\">The Erfurt Bibles and the Tiberian Tradition<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible reached its classical form in Tiberias in the ninth and tenth centuries, in the work of the Ben Asher family and their contemporaries. The two great codices associated with that school, the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, are described in other articles on this site, including <a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-tiberian-masorah-and-the-schools-of-ben-asher-and-ben-naphtali\/\">The Tiberian Masorah and the Schools of Ben Asher and Ben Naphtali<\/a>. The Ashkenazi Bibles stand at a distance from that source, both in time and in place, and the question that they raise is how faithfully the European tradition preserved it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The answer suggested by the Erfurt manuscripts is mixed. In the consonantal text, the Erfurt Bibles agree closely with the Tiberian codices, and the variants that Kennicott recorded from Erfurt 3 and other European manuscripts are, in the great majority of cases, small differences of spelling or obvious scribal errors.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-78\"><a href=\"#note-78\">78<\/a><\/sup> In the arrangement of the sections of the Torah, the Erfurt scrolls show the influence of the Maimonidean standard derived from the Aleppo Codex.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-79\"><a href=\"#note-79\">79<\/a><\/sup> In vocalisation and accentuation, by contrast, the Ashkenazi tradition shows its own features, some of which arose from the local pronunciation and some from the transmission of the text through copies of varying quality.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-80\"><a href=\"#note-80\">80<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-81\"><a href=\"#note-81\">81<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It would therefore be misleading to describe the Ashkenazi Bibles either as corrupt or as independent. They were produced by scribes and punctuators who regarded the Tiberian Masorah as authoritative and tried to follow it, but who worked at a distance from its sources and within a living tradition of reading and pronunciation. The Erfurt collection is valuable precisely because it shows that tradition in several stages and in several forms: an imported eastern Bible, locally produced giant Bibles with Targum and Masorah, a Pentateuch with the readings used in the synagogue, Torah scrolls for public reading, and a handbook of Masorah for the use of punctuators.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-82\"><a href=\"#note-82\">82<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-83\"><a href=\"#note-83\">83<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-books-in-their-setting\">The Books in Their Setting<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Erfurt Bibles were not only objects of scholarship. Large Bibles of this kind were costly to produce, and they were often commissioned by wealthy members of a community for their own households, to be studied there and passed on to their heirs, as the colophon of Erfurt 1 indicates.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-84\"><a href=\"#note-84\">84<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-85\"><a href=\"#note-85\">85<\/a><\/sup> The inclusion of the Targum in the Pentateuch had a practical purpose: Ashkenazi custom required each man to read the weekly portion privately twice in Hebrew and once in the Aramaic translation, and a Bible with the Targum written verse by verse was well suited to this. The Pentateuch Erfurt 4, with its prophetic readings and translated festival readings, was designed for the cycle of the synagogue year.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-86\"><a href=\"#note-86\">86<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Torah scrolls served the public reading in the synagogue itself, and the other books of the collection, the Tosefta, the commentaries of Rashi, the festival prayer book and the legal miscellany, show the range of study and worship that the Bibles supported. David Stern, in his history of the Jewish Bible as a material object, has argued that the large Ashkenazi Bibles with Targum and Masorah represent a distinctively European form of the Hebrew Bible, in which the codex served at once as a text for study, a record of tradition and an object of value and display.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-87\"><a href=\"#note-87\">87<\/a><\/sup> The Erfurt collection is one of the few places where such books can still be seen alongside the scrolls, prayer books and commentaries with which they were used.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"study-and-access-today\">Study and Access Today<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Erfurt manuscripts are held in the Oriental Department of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, and many of them have been digitised. The first volume of Erfurt 1 remains withdrawn because of its condition.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-88\"><a href=\"#note-88\">88<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-89\"><a href=\"#note-89\">89<\/a><\/sup> The Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin descriptions provide for each manuscript an account of its physical form, contents, decoration, provenance and bibliography, and they are the most convenient starting point for anyone wishing to study the collection.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-90\"><a href=\"#note-90\">90<\/a><\/sup> In Erfurt itself, the Old Synagogue museum displays the treasure found in 1998 and has exhibited items from the manuscript collection on loan from Berlin, among them the binding of the second volume of Erfurt 1.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-91\"><a href=\"#note-91\">91<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-92\"><a href=\"#note-92\">92<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For the history of the Hebrew Bible, the Erfurt Bibles are significant in three respects. They are among the best documented examples of the large Ashkenazi Bible with Targum and Masorah. They allow the work of scribe and punctuator to be distinguished, through colophons and through the evidence of trial pages and changes of hand. And through their later history, in the council library, the Lutheran ministerial library and the Royal Library in Berlin, they show how the books of a destroyed Jewish community became sources for Christian Hebraists and, eventually, for modern scholarship on the transmission of the Hebrew text. The site\u2019s article on <a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-kennicott-bible\/\">The Kennicott Bible<\/a> describes a Sephardi Bible of the following century, which may be compared with them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"notes\">Notes<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list post-notes\">\n\n<li id=\"note-1\">Erfurt city administration, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/juedisches-leben.erfurt.de\/jl\/en\/middle-ages\/hebrew_manuscripts\/research\/index.html\">Erfurt Collection<\/a>\u201d, <em>J\u00fcdisches Leben in Erfurt<\/em>. <a href=\"#ref-1\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-2\">Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Orientabteilung, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/staatsbibliothek-berlin.de\/en\/about-the-library\/departments\/orient\/translate-to-english-sammlungen\/translate-to-english-handschriften\/translate-to-english-hebraeische-handschriften\">Hebrew manuscripts<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-2\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-3\">Adolph Jaraczewsky, <em>Die Geschichte der Juden in Erfurt<\/em> (Erfurt, 1868). <a href=\"#ref-3\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-4\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Old_Synagogue_(Erfurt)\">Old Synagogue (Erfurt)<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-4\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-5\">Maria St\u00fcrzebecher, <em>Der Schatzfund aus der Michaelisstra\u00dfe in Erfurt<\/em>, Die mittelalterliche j\u00fcdische Kultur in Erfurt 1 (Langenwei\u00dfbach, 2010). <a href=\"#ref-5\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-6\">UNESCO World Heritage Centre, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/whc.unesco.org\/en\/list\/1656\/\">Jewish-Medieval Heritage of Erfurt<\/a>\u201d (inscribed 2023). <a href=\"#ref-6\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-7\">Erfurt city administration, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/juedisches-leben.erfurt.de\/jl\/en\/middle-ages\/jcommunity\/index.html\">Jewish Community<\/a>\u201d, <em>J\u00fcdisches Leben in Erfurt<\/em>. <a href=\"#ref-7\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-8\">Erfurt city administration, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/juedisches-leben.erfurt.de\/jl\/en\/middle-ages\/jcommunity\/index.html\">Jewish Community<\/a>\u201d, <em>J\u00fcdisches Leben in Erfurt<\/em>. <a href=\"#ref-8\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-9\">Erfurt city administration, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/juedisches-leben.erfurt.de\/jl\/en\/middle-ages\/hebrew_manuscripts\/research\/index.html\">Erfurt Collection<\/a>\u201d, <em>J\u00fcdisches Leben in Erfurt<\/em>. <a href=\"#ref-9\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-10\">Adolph Jaraczewsky, <em>Die Geschichte der Juden in Erfurt<\/em> (Erfurt, 1868). <a href=\"#ref-10\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-11\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1212\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1212\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-11\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-12\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-12\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-13\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1212\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1212\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-13\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-14\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1212\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1212\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-14\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-15\">Erfurt city administration, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/juedisches-leben.erfurt.de\/jl\/en\/middle-ages\/hebrew_manuscripts\/research\/index.html\">Erfurt Collection<\/a>\u201d, <em>J\u00fcdisches Leben in Erfurt<\/em>. <a href=\"#ref-15\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-16\">Johann Heinrich Michaelis and Abraham Kall, <em>Dissertatio philologico-critica de codicibus mss. biblico-hebraicis, maxime Erffurtensibus<\/em> (Halle, 1706). <a href=\"#ref-16\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-17\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1213\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1213\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-17\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-18\">Benjamin Kennicott, <em>Dissertatio generalis in Vetus Testamentum Hebraicum<\/em> (Oxford, 1780; Brunswick edition, 1783). <a href=\"#ref-18\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-19\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1213\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1213\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-19\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-20\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-20\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-21\">Adolph Jaraczewsky, <em>Die Geschichte der Juden in Erfurt<\/em> (Erfurt, 1868). <a href=\"#ref-21\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-22\">Paul de Lagarde, \u201cHebr\u00e4ische Handschriften in Erfurt\u201d, in <em>Symmicta<\/em> (G\u00f6ttingen, 1877), 133\u2013152; see also Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Paul_de_Lagarde\">Paul de Lagarde<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-22\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-23\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-23\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-24\">Moritz Steinschneider, <em>Verzeichniss der hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften<\/em>, Die Handschriften-Verzeichnisse der K\u00f6niglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin 2 (Berlin, 1878); see also Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Moritz_Steinschneider\">Moritz Steinschneider<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-24\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-25\">Erfurt city administration, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/juedisches-leben.erfurt.de\/jl\/en\/middle-ages\/hebrew_manuscripts\/research\/index.html\">Erfurt Collection<\/a>\u201d, <em>J\u00fcdisches Leben in Erfurt<\/em>. <a href=\"#ref-25\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-26\">Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Orientabteilung, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/staatsbibliothek-berlin.de\/en\/about-the-library\/departments\/orient\/translate-to-english-sammlungen\/translate-to-english-handschriften\/translate-to-english-hebraeische-handschriften\">Hebrew manuscripts<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-26\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-27\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1213\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1213\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-27\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-28\">Annett Martini, \u201cDie Erfurter Hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften: Zur Geschichte der Sammlung\u201d, project overview, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/index.html\">Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-28\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-29\">Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Orientabteilung, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/staatsbibliothek-berlin.de\/en\/about-the-library\/departments\/orient\/translate-to-english-sammlungen\/translate-to-english-handschriften\/translate-to-english-hebraeische-handschriften\">Hebrew manuscripts<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-29\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-30\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-30\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-31\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-31\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-32\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-32\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-33\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-33\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-34\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-34\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-35\">Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Orientabteilung, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/staatsbibliothek-berlin.de\/en\/about-the-library\/departments\/orient\/translate-to-english-sammlungen\/translate-to-english-handschriften\/translate-to-english-hebraeische-handschriften\">Hebrew manuscripts<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-35\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-36\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-36\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-37\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-37\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-38\">Ilan Eldar, <em>The Hebrew Language Tradition in Medieval Ashkenaz (ca. 950\u20131350 C.E.)<\/em>, 2 vols (Jerusalem: Academy of the Hebrew Language, 1978), in Hebrew. <a href=\"#ref-38\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-39\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-39\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-40\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Micrography\">Micrography<\/a>\u201d; Leila Avrin, <em>Micrography as Art<\/em> (Paris and Jerusalem, 1981). <a href=\"#ref-40\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-41\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1212\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1212\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-41\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-42\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1212\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1212\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-42\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-43\">Erfurt city administration, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/juedisches-leben.erfurt.de\/jl\/en\/middle-ages\/hebrew_manuscripts\/research\/index.html\">Erfurt Collection<\/a>\u201d, <em>J\u00fcdisches Leben in Erfurt<\/em>. <a href=\"#ref-43\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-44\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1212\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1212\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-44\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-45\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1212\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1212\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-45\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-46\">Erfurt city administration, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/juedisches-leben.erfurt.de\/jl\/en\/middle-ages\/hebrew_manuscripts\/research\/index.html\">Erfurt Collection<\/a>\u201d, <em>J\u00fcdisches Leben in Erfurt<\/em>. <a href=\"#ref-46\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-47\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1213\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1213\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-47\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-48\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1213\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1213\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-48\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-49\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1213\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1213\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-49\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-50\">Johann Heinrich Michaelis and Abraham Kall, <em>Dissertatio philologico-critica de codicibus mss. biblico-hebraicis, maxime Erffurtensibus<\/em> (Halle, 1706). <a href=\"#ref-50\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-51\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1213\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1213\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-51\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-52\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1213\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1213\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-52\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-53\">Benjamin Kennicott, <em>Dissertatio generalis in Vetus Testamentum Hebraicum<\/em> (Oxford, 1780; Brunswick edition, 1783). <a href=\"#ref-53\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-54\">Paul de Lagarde, \u201cHebr\u00e4ische Handschriften in Erfurt\u201d, in <em>Symmicta<\/em> (G\u00f6ttingen, 1877), 133\u2013152; see also Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Paul_de_Lagarde\">Paul de Lagarde<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-54\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-55\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1214\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1214\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-55\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-56\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1215\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1215\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-56\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-57\">Franz Hubmann and Josef M. Oesch, \u201cBetrachtungen zu den Torarollen der Erfurter Handschriften-Sammlung\u201d, in <em>Die j\u00fcdische Gemeinde von Erfurt und die SchUM-Gemeinden<\/em>, Erfurter Schriften zur j\u00fcdischen Geschichte 1 (Erfurt, 2012), 96\u2013116. <a href=\"#ref-57\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-58\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1215\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1215\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-58\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-59\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1219\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1219\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-59\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-60\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1219\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1219\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-60\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-61\">Ilan Eldar, <em>The Hebrew Language Tradition in Medieval Ashkenaz (ca. 950\u20131350 C.E.)<\/em>, 2 vols (Jerusalem: Academy of the Hebrew Language, 1978), in Hebrew. <a href=\"#ref-61\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-62\">Ilan Eldar, <em>The Hebrew Language Tradition in Medieval Ashkenaz (ca. 950\u20131350 C.E.)<\/em>, 2 vols (Jerusalem: Academy of the Hebrew Language, 1978), in Hebrew. <a href=\"#ref-62\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-63\">David Stern, <em>The Jewish Bible: A Material History<\/em> (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2017). <a href=\"#ref-63\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-64\">Malachi Beit-Ari\u00e9, <em>Hebrew Codicology<\/em> (Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1981); and his online <em>Hebrew Codicology: Historical and Comparative Typology of Hebrew Medieval Codices<\/em> (2020). <a href=\"#ref-64\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-65\">Malachi Beit-Ari\u00e9, <em>Hebrew Codicology<\/em> (Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1981); and his online <em>Hebrew Codicology: Historical and Comparative Typology of Hebrew Medieval Codices<\/em> (2020). <a href=\"#ref-65\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-66\">David Stern, <em>The Jewish Bible: A Material History<\/em> (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2017). <a href=\"#ref-66\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-67\">Ilan Eldar, <em>The Hebrew Language Tradition in Medieval Ashkenaz (ca. 950\u20131350 C.E.)<\/em>, 2 vols (Jerusalem: Academy of the Hebrew Language, 1978), in Hebrew. <a href=\"#ref-67\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-68\">Yekutiel ben Judah ha-Naqdan, <em>\u02bfEin ha-Qore<\/em>, a thirteenth-century Ashkenazi treatise on vocalisation and accents. <a href=\"#ref-68\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-69\">Ilan Eldar, <em>The Hebrew Language Tradition in Medieval Ashkenaz (ca. 950\u20131350 C.E.)<\/em>, 2 vols (Jerusalem: Academy of the Hebrew Language, 1978), in Hebrew. <a href=\"#ref-69\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-70\">Ilan Eldar, <em>The Hebrew Language Tradition in Medieval Ashkenaz (ca. 950\u20131350 C.E.)<\/em>, 2 vols (Jerusalem: Academy of the Hebrew Language, 1978), in Hebrew. <a href=\"#ref-70\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-71\">Ilan Eldar, <em>The Hebrew Language Tradition in Medieval Ashkenaz (ca. 950\u20131350 C.E.)<\/em>, 2 vols (Jerusalem: Academy of the Hebrew Language, 1978), in Hebrew. <a href=\"#ref-71\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-72\">Jordan S. Penkower, \u201cThe Ashkenazi Pentateuch Tradition as Reflected in the Erfurt Hebrew Bible Codices and Torah Scrolls\u201d, in <em>Zu Bild und Text im j\u00fcdisch-christlichen Kontext<\/em>, Erfurter Schriften zur j\u00fcdischen Geschichte 3 (Erfurt, 2014), 118\u2013141. <a href=\"#ref-72\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-73\">Jordan S. Penkower, \u201cThe Ashkenazi Pentateuch Tradition as Reflected in the Erfurt Hebrew Bible Codices and Torah Scrolls\u201d, in <em>Zu Bild und Text im j\u00fcdisch-christlichen Kontext<\/em>, Erfurter Schriften zur j\u00fcdischen Geschichte 3 (Erfurt, 2014), 118\u2013141. <a href=\"#ref-73\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-74\">Israel Yeivin, <em>Introduction to the Tiberian Masorah<\/em>, trans. E. J. Revell (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1980). <a href=\"#ref-74\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-75\">Elias Levita, <em>Masoret ha-Masoret<\/em> (Venice, 1538), ed. and trans. Christian D. Ginsburg (London, 1867). <a href=\"#ref-75\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-76\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Micrography\">Micrography<\/a>\u201d; Leila Avrin, <em>Micrography as Art<\/em> (Paris and Jerusalem, 1981). <a href=\"#ref-76\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-77\">Dalia-Ruth Halperin, <em>Illuminating in Micrography: The Catalan Micrography Mahzor<\/em> (Leiden: Brill, 2013), introduction. <a href=\"#ref-77\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-78\">Benjamin Kennicott, <em>Dissertatio generalis in Vetus Testamentum Hebraicum<\/em> (Oxford, 1780; Brunswick edition, 1783). <a href=\"#ref-78\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-79\">Franz Hubmann and Josef M. Oesch, \u201cBetrachtungen zu den Torarollen der Erfurter Handschriften-Sammlung\u201d, in <em>Die j\u00fcdische Gemeinde von Erfurt und die SchUM-Gemeinden<\/em>, Erfurter Schriften zur j\u00fcdischen Geschichte 1 (Erfurt, 2012), 96\u2013116. <a href=\"#ref-79\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-80\">Ilan Eldar, <em>The Hebrew Language Tradition in Medieval Ashkenaz (ca. 950\u20131350 C.E.)<\/em>, 2 vols (Jerusalem: Academy of the Hebrew Language, 1978), in Hebrew. <a href=\"#ref-80\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-81\">Jordan S. Penkower, \u201cThe Ashkenazi Pentateuch Tradition as Reflected in the Erfurt Hebrew Bible Codices and Torah Scrolls\u201d, in <em>Zu Bild und Text im j\u00fcdisch-christlichen Kontext<\/em>, Erfurter Schriften zur j\u00fcdischen Geschichte 3 (Erfurt, 2014), 118\u2013141. <a href=\"#ref-81\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-82\">Erfurt city administration, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/juedisches-leben.erfurt.de\/jl\/en\/middle-ages\/hebrew_manuscripts\/research\/index.html\">Erfurt Collection<\/a>\u201d, <em>J\u00fcdisches Leben in Erfurt<\/em>. <a href=\"#ref-82\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-83\">Annett Martini, \u201cDie Erfurter Hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften: Zur Geschichte der Sammlung\u201d, project overview, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/index.html\">Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-83\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-84\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-84\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-85\">David Stern, <em>The Jewish Bible: A Material History<\/em> (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2017). <a href=\"#ref-85\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-86\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1214\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1214\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-86\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-87\">David Stern, <em>The Jewish Bible: A Material History<\/em> (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2017). <a href=\"#ref-87\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-88\">Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Orientabteilung, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/staatsbibliothek-berlin.de\/en\/about-the-library\/departments\/orient\/translate-to-english-sammlungen\/translate-to-english-handschriften\/translate-to-english-hebraeische-handschriften\">Hebrew manuscripts<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-88\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-89\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-89\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-90\">Annett Martini, \u201cDie Erfurter Hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften: Zur Geschichte der Sammlung\u201d, project overview, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/index.html\">Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-90\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-91\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Old_Synagogue_(Erfurt)\">Old Synagogue (Erfurt)<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-91\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-92\">Annett Martini, \u201cHandschriftenbeschreibung: Ms. or. fol. 1210 und 1211\u201d, in <em>Die hebr\u00e4ischen Handschriften der Erfurter Sammlung<\/em> (Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 2018), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de\/e\/erfurter_sammlung\/dokumentation\/handschriftenbeschreibung\/1210-1211\/index.html\">online description<\/a>. <a href=\"#ref-92\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n<\/ol>\n\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Among the Hebrew manuscripts of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin is a group of books that once belonged to the Jewish community of Erfurt, a trading city in Thuringia in central Germany. They&hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":768,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[9],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-694","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-text-transmission"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/694","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=694"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/694\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/768"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=694"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=694"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=694"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}