{"id":832,"date":"2026-10-28T04:29:40","date_gmt":"2026-10-28T04:29:40","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-brest-bible-of-1563\/"},"modified":"2026-10-28T04:29:40","modified_gmt":"2026-10-28T04:29:40","slug":"the-brest-bible-of-1563","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-brest-bible-of-1563\/","title":{"rendered":"The Brest Bible of 1563"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">On 4 September 1563 the printer Bernard Wojew\u00f3dka completed, at Brest on the river Bug in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the printing of a complete Bible in Polish. The book was a large and handsome folio of about fifteen hundred pages, illustrated with woodcuts and dedicated to King Sigismund II Augustus. It was the work of a group of Reformed scholars who had laboured for several years at Pi\u0144cz\u00f3w in Lesser Poland, and it was printed at the expense of Miko\u0142aj Radziwi\u0142\u0142, called the Black, chancellor of Lithuania, palatine of Vilnius and the most powerful Protestant magnate in the Polish-Lithuanian state. The Brest Bible, also called the Radziwi\u0142\u0142 Bible and the Pi\u0144cz\u00f3w Bible, was the first complete Protestant translation of the Bible into Polish, and the first Polish Bible to claim that it had been made from the Hebrew and Greek rather than from the Latin Vulgate. Its history reflects both the brilliance and the fragility of the Reformation in Poland and Lithuania: produced at the height of Protestant influence among the nobility, it was overtaken within a few years by divisions among its own sponsors, by the conversion of its patron\u2019s sons to Catholicism and by the recovery of the Catholic church, and it survives today in a little more than a hundred copies. This article describes the religious situation in which the Bible was made, the earlier Polish translations, the work of the translators, the printing at Brest, the character of the translation, and its reception and later fortunes.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-1\"><a href=\"#note-1\">1<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-2\"><a href=\"#note-2\">2<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-3\"><a href=\"#note-3\">3<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group at-a-glance\"><div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\">\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"at-a-glance\">At a glance<\/h3>\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\n<li><strong>Title:<\/strong> Biblia \u015bwi\u0119ta, known as the Brest Bible, the Radziwi\u0142\u0142 Bible or the Pi\u0144cz\u00f3w Bible.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>Published:<\/strong> Brest (Brze\u015b\u0107 Litewski), Grand Duchy of Lithuania, completed 4 September 1563.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>Printer:<\/strong> Bernard Wojew\u00f3dka, at the press maintained by Miko\u0142aj Radziwi\u0142\u0142.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>Patron:<\/strong> Miko\u0142aj Radziwi\u0142\u0142 \u201cthe Black\u201d (1515\u20131565), chancellor of Lithuania and palatine of Vilnius.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>Translators:<\/strong> A group of Reformed scholars working at Pi\u0144cz\u00f3w in Lesser Poland, commissioned by the synods of the Reformed church.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>Format:<\/strong> A large folio of about 1,500 pages, with woodcut illustrations; probably about 500 copies.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>Dedication:<\/strong> To King Sigismund II Augustus.<\/li>\n\n\n<li><strong>Legacy:<\/strong> The first complete Protestant Bible in Polish; superseded among Protestants by the Gda\u0144sk Bible of 1632.<\/li>\n\n<\/ul>\n\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-reformation-in-poland-and-lithuania\">The Reformation in Poland and Lithuania<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the middle of the sixteenth century the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, united in the person of the king since the late fourteenth century and formally joined as a single commonwealth by the Union of Lublin in 1569, formed one of the largest states in Europe. Its population included Poles, Lithuanians, Ruthenians, Germans, Jews and Armenians, and its religious life was correspondingly diverse: the Catholic church of the Latin rite was the church of the king and of most of the Polish nobility, but the Orthodox church was the church of the Ruthenian population of the east, and there were substantial Jewish communities in the towns. Political power lay largely with the nobility, the szlachta, whose privileges limited the authority of the king and protected their freedom of action on their estates.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-4\"><a href=\"#note-4\">4<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-5\"><a href=\"#note-5\">5<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-6\"><a href=\"#note-6\">6<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Reformation reached Poland in the 1520s through the German-speaking towns of Royal Prussia, especially Danzig, and through students returning from Wittenberg. Lutheranism remained largely confined to the German population, but from the 1540s the Reformed theology of Switzerland and Geneva attracted a growing part of the Polish and Lithuanian nobility, who found in it a doctrine that suited their independence and their resentment of the wealth and jurisdiction of the clergy. The Reformed church of Lesser Poland was organised in a series of synods from 1550 onwards, many of them held at Pi\u0144cz\u00f3w, a town on the estate of the nobleman Miko\u0142aj Ole\u015bnicki, who expelled the Pauline monks from the town and turned their monastery into a Protestant school. The Polish reformer Jan \u0141aski, who had spent many years abroad organising Reformed churches in East Frisia and London, returned to Poland in 1556 and worked to unite and organise the Reformed churches until his death in 1560.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-7\"><a href=\"#note-7\">7<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-8\"><a href=\"#note-8\">8<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-9\"><a href=\"#note-9\">9<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In Lithuania, the leading patron of the Reformation was Miko\u0142aj Radziwi\u0142\u0142 the Black, a cousin of Queen Barbara Radziwi\u0142\u0142, the second wife of Sigismund Augustus, and the most influential adviser of the king in the affairs of the Grand Duchy. Radziwi\u0142\u0142 adopted Protestantism in the 1550s, first in a Lutheran and then in a Reformed form, and he established Reformed congregations on his estates and in Vilnius, founded schools, and maintained a printing press at Brest. He corresponded with Calvin, who dedicated to him a commentary, and he used his influence at court to protect the Protestants of Poland and Lithuania. His wealth and power made the Reformed church in Lithuania, for a time, one of the strongest Protestant churches in eastern Europe.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-10\"><a href=\"#note-10\">10<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-11\"><a href=\"#note-11\">11<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-12\"><a href=\"#note-12\">12<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">King Sigismund II Augustus, who reigned from 1548 to 1572, was a cultivated ruler who read Protestant books and corresponded with reformers, and who for many years declined to enforce the laws against heresy. He did not leave the Catholic church, but his tolerance gave the Protestants an opportunity that they used to the full. By the early 1560s Protestants were strongly represented in the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, and there was talk of a national council that would reform the Polish church independently of Rome. This hope was not realised, and after the Council of Trent closed in 1563 the Catholic church in Poland, led by Cardinal Stanis\u0142aw Hosius, began a vigorous campaign of recovery. But in the years when the Brest Bible was being prepared, the future of Polish Protestantism seemed bright.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-13\"><a href=\"#note-13\">13<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-14\"><a href=\"#note-14\">14<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-15\"><a href=\"#note-15\">15<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"earlier-polish-translations\">Earlier Polish Translations<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Polish translations of parts of the Bible had existed since the Middle Ages. The earliest surviving texts are the Psalters: the Florian Psalter, a manuscript of the late fourteenth century in Latin, Polish and German, and the Pu\u0142awy Psalter of the later fifteenth century. The so-called Bible of Queen Sophia, a translation of much of the Old Testament made in the middle of the fifteenth century for Sophia, the widow of King W\u0142adys\u0142aw Jagie\u0142\u0142o, survives incomplete in a manuscript known from its later location as the S\u00e1rospatak Bible. These translations were made from the Latin Vulgate, and they circulated in manuscript among a small number of readers.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-16\"><a href=\"#note-16\">16<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-17\"><a href=\"#note-17\">17<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the sixteenth century, the printing press made possible the publication of complete translations. The first printed Polish Bible was a Catholic translation, made from the Vulgate by Jan Nicz of Lw\u00f3w, known as Leopolita, and published at Cracow in 1561 by the printing house of the Scharffenberg family. Its language was somewhat old-fashioned, and it was based on the Latin rather than the original languages, but it was the first complete Bible to be printed in Polish. Protestant translators had already produced translations of the New Testament: the Lutheran Jan Seklucjan published a Polish New Testament at K\u00f6nigsberg in 1551\u201352, made with the help of Stanis\u0142aw Murzynowski, and Murzynowski\u2019s own version of the New Testament followed in 1553. These Lutheran translations served the Polish-speaking Protestants of Ducal Prussia, but the Reformed churches of Poland and Lithuania wanted a Bible of their own, made from the originals and reflecting their theology.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-18\"><a href=\"#note-18\">18<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-19\"><a href=\"#note-19\">19<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-20\"><a href=\"#note-20\">20<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-translators-at-pi-cz-w\">The Translators at Pi\u0144cz\u00f3w<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The decision to prepare a new translation was taken by the Reformed synods of Lesser Poland in the late 1550s, with the encouragement of \u0141aski and the financial support of Radziwi\u0142\u0142. The work was carried out at Pi\u0144cz\u00f3w, where the Reformed school, led by the French scholar Pierre Statorius, who later took the Polish name Stoi\u0144ski, provided a centre of learning. The translators are not named in the Bible itself, but contemporary evidence and later scholarship identify several of them. They included Statorius, who taught Greek and wrote the first grammar of the Polish language, published in 1568; Grzegorz Pawe\u0142 of Brzeziny, a minister of the Cracow congregation; Jan Thenaudus, a Frenchman; Jerzy Szoman; and Jakub Lubelczyk, a pastor and writer. Other scholars, including the humanist Andrzej Trzecieski and the former Franciscan Franciszek Lismanini, are also associated with the project in some accounts.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-21\"><a href=\"#note-21\">21<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-22\"><a href=\"#note-22\">22<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-23\"><a href=\"#note-23\">23<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The circle of translators at Pi\u0144cz\u00f3w was not only a centre of biblical scholarship but also a centre of theological controversy. In the late 1550s and early 1560s, the Reformed church of Lesser Poland was shaken by debates about the doctrine of the Trinity, set off by the teaching of the Italian Francesco Stancaro and developed in an Antitrinitarian direction by other Italian exiles and by Polish ministers. Several of the translators, among them Grzegorz Pawe\u0142 and Statorius, came to reject the traditional doctrine of the Trinity, and by 1563, when the Bible was printed, the Reformed church was on the verge of division. In 1565 the Antitrinitarians formed a separate church, known as the Minor Reformed Church or the Polish Brethren, which later became the home of the Socinian movement.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-24\"><a href=\"#note-24\">24<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-25\"><a href=\"#note-25\">25<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-26\"><a href=\"#note-26\">26<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-27\"><a href=\"#note-27\">27<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The doctrinal divisions among the translators left traces in the Bible. Scholars have pointed to renderings and notes in the Brest Bible that seem to reflect doubts about the traditional doctrine, though the translation as a whole remained within the bounds of Reformed orthodoxy. Radziwi\u0142\u0142 himself, in the last years of his life, showed sympathy for the Antitrinitarians, and his attitude may have encouraged the translators. Later Reformed theologians regarded the Brest Bible with suspicion because of its associations with the Antitrinitarian movement, and this suspicion contributed to the decision to prepare a new Reformed translation in the early seventeenth century.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-28\"><a href=\"#note-28\">28<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-29\"><a href=\"#note-29\">29<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-30\"><a href=\"#note-30\">30<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"sources-and-method\">Sources and Method<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The title page of the Brest Bible announced that it had been translated from the Hebrew, Greek and Latin into the Polish language diligently and faithfully. The translators\u2019 preface emphasised their use of the original languages and criticised the earlier Polish translations for following the Latin. The Old Testament was to follow the Hebrew truth, the Hebraica veritas of Jerome\u2019s phrase, and the New Testament the Greek. In this the translators followed the principles of the Reformation, which held that the authority of Scripture rested on the text in the languages in which it had been written, and that translations should be made from that text.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-31\"><a href=\"#note-31\">31<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-32\"><a href=\"#note-32\">32<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-33\"><a href=\"#note-33\">33<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Modern study has shown that the practice of the translators was more complex. Like most translators of their time, they relied heavily on the Latin translations made by humanist and Protestant scholars, which provided a guide to the meaning of the Hebrew and Greek and saved them the labour of independent philological study of every passage. Maria Kossowska, in her history of the Polish Bible, and other scholars have identified the influence of the Latin version of Santes Pagnini, the annotations of Fran\u00e7ois Vatable as printed in the editions of Robert Estienne, and the French Bible of Geneva, which had been revised under Calvin\u2019s supervision from the translation of Pierre Robert Oliv\u00e9tan. The New Testament drew on the Greek text of Erasmus and his successors and on the Latin translation of Theodore Beza. The translators also consulted the earlier Polish translations, including the Lutheran New Testaments of the 1550s.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-34\"><a href=\"#note-34\">34<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-35\"><a href=\"#note-35\">35<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-36\"><a href=\"#note-36\">36<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-37\"><a href=\"#note-37\">37<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The apparatus of the Bible followed the model of the Geneva Bibles. Each book was preceded by an argument summarising its contents, and the margins contained notes explaining difficult passages, giving alternative translations and cross-references, and pointing out the doctrinal significance of the text. The notes, like those of the Geneva Bible in French and English, reflected the Reformed theology of the translators, and they were among the features of the Bible most criticised by Catholic opponents. The Bible was divided into chapters and verses on the Geneva model, and it included the Apocrypha, which were printed as part of the Old Testament but distinguished from the canonical books.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-38\"><a href=\"#note-38\">38<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-39\"><a href=\"#note-39\">39<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-40\"><a href=\"#note-40\">40<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-printing-at-brest\">The Printing at Brest<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The printing was carried out at Brest, a town on the Bug that belonged to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and was an important centre of trade between Poland, Lithuania and the Ruthenian lands. Radziwi\u0142\u0142 had established a printing house there in the 1550s, managed by Bernard Wojew\u00f3dka, a printer from Cracow whose Protestant sympathies had brought him into conflict with the authorities there. The press printed religious and polemical works for Radziwi\u0142\u0142 and the Reformed church, and the Bible was its greatest undertaking. Brest was chosen because it lay within Radziwi\u0142\u0142\u2019s sphere of influence in the Grand Duchy, where he could protect the work from interference by the Catholic authorities.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-41\"><a href=\"#note-41\">41<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-42\"><a href=\"#note-42\">42<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-43\"><a href=\"#note-43\">43<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Bible was a magnificent book. It was printed in a large folio format, with two columns to the page, and it contained about fifteen hundred pages. It was illustrated with woodcuts and decorated with ornamental initials. The volume opened with a dedication to King Sigismund Augustus, written in the name of Radziwi\u0142\u0142, which urged the king to support the reform of the church on the basis of the Scriptures. A preface by the translators explained the principles of the work, and an index and other aids for readers were supplied. The edition is believed to have numbered about five hundred copies.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-44\"><a href=\"#note-44\">44<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-45\"><a href=\"#note-45\">45<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-46\"><a href=\"#note-46\">46<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Radziwi\u0142\u0142 did not long survive the completion of the Bible. He died in May 1565, at the age of forty-nine, and his death deprived the Reformed church of Lithuania of its most powerful protector. His sons, under the influence of the Catholic revival and of the Jesuits, returned to the Catholic church, and the eldest, Miko\u0142aj Krzysztof Radziwi\u0142\u0142, known as the Orphan, became one of the leading Catholic magnates of the Commonwealth. According to a tradition recorded in the seventeenth century and repeated by many later writers, he bought up all the copies of his father\u2019s Bible that he could find and had them burned. Whether or not the story is true in detail, the Brest Bible became rare, and only about 135 copies are known to survive.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-47\"><a href=\"#note-47\">47<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-48\"><a href=\"#note-48\">48<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-49\"><a href=\"#note-49\">49<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-language-of-the-translation\">The Language of the Translation<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Brest Bible is an important monument of the Polish language in the period that is often called its golden age, the age of the poet Jan Kochanowski and the prose writer Miko\u0142aj Rej. The translators wrote a clear, dignified and expressive Polish, which avoided both the archaisms of the medieval translations and the excessive Latinisms of some humanist writing. They paid attention to the rhythm and sound of the language, and their translation of the poetic books in particular has been admired for its literary quality. Their vocabulary drew on the resources of the Polish of the nobility and the educated classes, and they introduced or established many words and expressions for religious concepts.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-50\"><a href=\"#note-50\">50<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-51\"><a href=\"#note-51\">51<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The importance of the Brest Bible for the history of the Polish language was recognised by later writers, including some who rejected its theology. The Jesuit Jakub Wujek, whose Catholic translation of the Bible was published in 1599 and became the standard Catholic Polish Bible for nearly four centuries, was familiar with the Brest Bible and the other Protestant translations, and although he criticised them sharply, his own translation shows their influence in places. The Gda\u0144sk Bible of 1632, which replaced the Brest Bible among Polish Protestants, was in many respects a revision of it, and through the Gda\u0144sk Bible the language of the Brest translators continued to influence Polish Protestant usage until the twentieth century.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-52\"><a href=\"#note-52\">52<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-53\"><a href=\"#note-53\">53<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-54\"><a href=\"#note-54\">54<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-hebrew-bible-in-sixteenth-century-poland\">The Hebrew Bible in Sixteenth-Century Poland<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The claim of the Brest translators to have worked from the Hebrew must be understood in the light of the resources available to them. By the middle of the sixteenth century, the Hebrew Bible had been printed many times, in the great rabbinic Bibles of Daniel Bomberg at Venice, in the Complutensian Polyglot, and in a series of smaller editions produced by Christian and Jewish printers in Italy, Germany, Switzerland and France. These editions reproduced, with minor variations, the Masoretic text, the form of the Hebrew Bible that had been fixed by the Jewish scholars of the early Middle Ages with its vowel points and accents. Christian Hebraists in Germany and Switzerland, such as Sebastian M\u00fcnster at Basel, had produced grammars, dictionaries and Latin translations that made the Hebrew text accessible to Christian students, and the Reformed academies taught Hebrew as a regular part of the training of ministers.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-55\"><a href=\"#note-55\">55<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-56\"><a href=\"#note-56\">56<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-57\"><a href=\"#note-57\">57<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Poland itself had one of the largest Jewish populations in Europe, and Hebrew printing began in Cracow and Lublin in the sixteenth century. The Jewish communities of Poland were becoming the leading centres of rabbinic learning in the Ashkenazi world, and there was some contact between Christian and Jewish scholars, though it was limited by mutual suspicion. There is little evidence that the Brest translators consulted Jewish scholars directly, and their knowledge of Hebrew came mainly from the Christian Hebraist tradition of western Europe. But the presence of a large Jewish population in the Commonwealth meant that questions about the interpretation of the Hebrew Bible had a practical as well as a scholarly significance, and Christian controversialists in Poland wrote frequently against Jewish interpretations of the prophecies.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-58\"><a href=\"#note-58\">58<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-59\"><a href=\"#note-59\">59<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-60\"><a href=\"#note-60\">60<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The principle of the Hebraica veritas, the authority of the Hebrew text of the Old Testament over the Latin and Greek translations, had been asserted by Jerome in the fourth century and revived by the humanists and reformers of the sixteenth. For Protestant translators, it meant that the Old Testament should be translated from the Hebrew, and that the Vulgate, the Latin Bible of the medieval church, should be used only as an aid. For the Catholic church, which declared the Vulgate authentic at the Council of Trent in 1546, the question was more complex: Catholic scholars continued to study the Hebrew, but the Vulgate remained the authoritative text for the public use of the church. The difference between the Brest Bible, translated in principle from the Hebrew and Greek, and the Leopolita and Wujek Bibles, translated from the Vulgate, reflected this confessional divide.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-61\"><a href=\"#note-61\">61<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-62\"><a href=\"#note-62\">62<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-63\"><a href=\"#note-63\">63<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In practice, as has been seen, the line between translation from the original and translation from the Latin was not sharp. The Latin versions of Pagnini and others were themselves translations from the Hebrew, made by scholars who knew the language well, and a translator who used them was in a sense using the Hebrew at second hand. The Brest translators appear to have consulted the Hebrew and Greek where they could, and to have relied on the Latin and French versions where their own knowledge was insufficient. This method, common among the translators of the period, produced a translation that was closer to the original than one made from the Vulgate alone, while depending on the scholarship of western Europe for much of its interpretation.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-64\"><a href=\"#note-64\">64<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-65\"><a href=\"#note-65\">65<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-66\"><a href=\"#note-66\">66<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"radziwi-the-black\">Radziwi\u0142\u0142 the Black<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Miko\u0142aj Radziwi\u0142\u0142, born in 1515, was the son of a family that had risen to the first rank of the Lithuanian nobility in the fifteenth century. He received the title of prince of the Holy Roman Empire in 1547, together with his cousin Miko\u0142aj Radziwi\u0142\u0142 the Red, and his influence grew after the marriage of Sigismund Augustus to his cousin Barbara in the same year. He served as marshal and chancellor of the Grand Duchy and as palatine of Vilnius, and he was the king\u2019s most trusted adviser in Lithuanian affairs. He led the opposition among the Lithuanian magnates to a closer union with Poland, which he feared would subordinate the Grand Duchy to the Polish crown, and he took part in the wars against Muscovy in Livonia. His nickname, the Black, distinguished him from his cousin, the Red, and is said to refer to the colour of his hair.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-67\"><a href=\"#note-67\">67<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-68\"><a href=\"#note-68\">68<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-69\"><a href=\"#note-69\">69<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Radziwi\u0142\u0142\u2019s support for the Reformation combined personal conviction with political calculation. A Protestant church in Lithuania, independent of the Catholic hierarchy, strengthened the position of the magnates against the clergy and the crown, and the patronage of churches, schools and presses enhanced the prestige of the Radziwi\u0142\u0142 family. But his correspondence with Calvin and other reformers shows a genuine interest in religious questions, and his support for the Bible was the act of a man who believed in the importance of the Scriptures for the reform of the church. The Bible\u2019s dedication to the king, written in his name, was both a statement of his faith and an appeal for royal support for the Reformation.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-70\"><a href=\"#note-70\">70<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-71\"><a href=\"#note-71\">71<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-72\"><a href=\"#note-72\">72<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"controversy-and-rival-translations\">Controversy and Rival Translations<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Brest Bible was born into a world of controversy, and it soon became the object of attack from several sides. Catholic writers criticised it as a heretical translation that distorted the meaning of the Scriptures to support Protestant doctrine, and they pointed to its notes and to particular renderings as evidence. The Catholic church responded with its own translations, first by revising the Leopolita Bible and later by commissioning the Jesuit translation of Wujek, which was intended to provide Catholics with a Polish Bible that would match the Protestant translations in quality while remaining faithful to the Vulgate, which the Council of Trent had declared authentic.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-73\"><a href=\"#note-73\">73<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-74\"><a href=\"#note-74\">74<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-75\"><a href=\"#note-75\">75<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Antitrinitarians, on the other hand, found the Brest Bible insufficiently radical. Szymon Budny, a scholar of great learning who had become one of the leaders of the most radical wing of the movement in Lithuania, published at Nie\u015bwie\u017c in 1572 a new translation of the whole Bible, made directly from the Hebrew and Greek and accompanied by critical notes in which he discussed the text with remarkable independence. Budny was one of the most original biblical critics of the sixteenth century, and his translation, though it had little influence on later Polish usage, is an important document of the radical Reformation. The Polish Brethren also produced a New Testament translation of their own, published at Rak\u00f3w in 1606.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-76\"><a href=\"#note-76\">76<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-77\"><a href=\"#note-77\">77<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-78\"><a href=\"#note-78\">78<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-79\"><a href=\"#note-79\">79<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Reformed and Lutheran churches eventually concluded that the Brest Bible, with its Antitrinitarian associations and its imperfections of translation, was no longer adequate, and in the early seventeenth century they undertook a revision. The work was entrusted to Daniel Miko\u0142ajewski, the Reformed superintendent of Kuyavia, and to the theologian Jan Turnowski of the Unity of the Brethren, among others, and the result was published at Danzig in 1632. The Gda\u0144sk Bible, as it came to be known, became the standard Bible of Polish Protestants until the twentieth century. It retained much of the language of the Brest Bible but revised its translation in many places, especially where the Brest translators had been suspected of Antitrinitarian bias.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-80\"><a href=\"#note-80\">80<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-81\"><a href=\"#note-81\">81<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-82\"><a href=\"#note-82\">82<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">David Frick has shown that these controversies over translation were part of a wider debate in Poland about the principles of sacred philology. Catholic, Reformed, Lutheran and Antitrinitarian scholars argued about the relative authority of the Hebrew, the Greek and the Latin, about the proper relation between literal and free translation, and about the role of the translator\u2019s theology in his work. Each side accused the others of distorting the text for doctrinal reasons, and each claimed for its own translation the authority of the original. These debates, conducted in Polish and Latin over three-quarters of a century, made Poland one of the most important centres of discussion about the translation of the Bible in early modern Europe.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-83\"><a href=\"#note-83\">83<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-84\"><a href=\"#note-84\">84<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"the-brest-bible-among-the-reformation-bibles\">The Brest Bible among the Reformation Bibles<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Brest Bible belongs to a remarkable group of vernacular Bibles produced in central and eastern Europe in the second half of the sixteenth century under the patronage of Protestant nobles. The Czech Brethren produced the Bible of Kralice, printed in six volumes between 1579 and 1594 at a press on the estate of the Moravian nobleman Jan \u017derot\u00edn. The Hungarian Reformed produced the Vizsoly Bible, printed in 1590 under the patronage of Zsigmond R\u00e1k\u00f3czi and other nobles. The Slovenian Protestants produced the Bible of Jurij Dalmatin, printed at Wittenberg in 1584. In each case, the Bible was the work of a group of scholars, it was printed at the expense of noble patrons, and it played an important part in the religious and linguistic history of its people.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-85\"><a href=\"#note-85\">85<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-86\"><a href=\"#note-86\">86<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-87\"><a href=\"#note-87\">87<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Among these Bibles, the Brest Bible was the earliest, and it was in some respects the most ambitious. Its translators claimed to work from the original languages at a time when most vernacular Bibles in the region were still based on the Latin, and its printing was among the finest achievements of sixteenth-century typography in Poland and Lithuania. Its fate also illustrates the vulnerability of the Reformation in eastern Europe, where Protestant churches depended on noble patrons whose conversion or death could undo their work. The Kralice Bible and the Vizsoly Bible were more fortunate, remaining in use for centuries; the Brest Bible was superseded within seventy years and largely forgotten until its rediscovery by scholars in the nineteenth century.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-88\"><a href=\"#note-88\">88<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-89\"><a href=\"#note-89\">89<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-90\"><a href=\"#note-90\">90<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Brest Bible can also be compared with the Bibles of western Europe. Its translators were in contact with the scholars of Geneva and used the French Bible of Geneva as one of their models, and its apparatus followed the pattern of the Geneva Bibles. In this respect it belongs with the English Geneva Bible of 1560 and the Spanish Bible of Casiodoro de Reina of 1569 as one of the products of the international network of Reformed scholarship centred on Geneva. Like those Bibles, it was intended not only to provide the Scriptures in the vernacular but also to teach the Reformed interpretation of them through its notes and summaries.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-91\"><a href=\"#note-91\">91<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-92\"><a href=\"#note-92\">92<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-93\"><a href=\"#note-93\">93<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Brest Bible also contributed to the formation of a Protestant reading public in Poland and Lithuania. A large folio Bible was an expensive book, beyond the means of most readers, and the five hundred copies of the first edition were acquired mainly by churches, schools and noble households. But the Bible was read aloud in the churches and the households, and its language was heard by many who could not read it themselves. The Reformed congregations of Lesser Poland and Lithuania used it for preaching and teaching, and their ministers quoted it in their sermons and writings, so that its phrases became familiar to a much wider circle than its owners.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-94\"><a href=\"#note-94\">94<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-95\"><a href=\"#note-95\">95<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"rediscovery-and-study\">Rediscovery and Study<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The rarity of the Brest Bible ensured that it remained little known for two centuries after its publication. Interest in it revived in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when Polish scholars began to study the history of their language and literature and recognised the importance of the Reformation Bibles. Bibliographers described the surviving copies, philologists studied the language of the translation, and historians examined its place in the history of the Reformation. In the twentieth century, the history of the Polish Bible was the subject of extensive study, notably by Maria Kossowska, whose two-volume history of the Bible in the Polish language remains a standard work, and by scholars of the Reformation in Poland.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-96\"><a href=\"#note-96\">96<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-97\"><a href=\"#note-97\">97<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The surviving copies are held in libraries in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia, Germany and other countries. Several copies are preserved in the National Library in Warsaw and the libraries of Cracow, and others in the great libraries of western Europe. A facsimile edition has made the text more widely accessible, and the Bible has been digitised by several libraries. Its anniversaries have been marked by exhibitions and conferences in Poland and Belarus, and it is recognised in both countries as an important part of their cultural heritage.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-98\"><a href=\"#note-98\">98<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"assessment\">Assessment<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Brest Bible was the product of a brief period when it seemed possible that Poland and Lithuania might become Protestant countries. It was made by a group of talented scholars working in a centre of Reformed learning, it was paid for by one of the richest and most powerful men in the Commonwealth, and it was printed with a magnificence that reflected the confidence of its sponsors. It was the first complete Protestant Bible in Polish and the first to claim to be made from the original languages, and its language was among the finest Polish prose of its century.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-99\"><a href=\"#note-99\">99<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-100\"><a href=\"#note-100\">100<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-101\"><a href=\"#note-101\">101<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Its fortunes reflected the reversal of the Protestant cause. Within a few years of its publication, its translators were divided by the Trinitarian controversy, its patron was dead and his sons had returned to Rome, and the Catholic church, strengthened by the decrees of Trent and the work of the Jesuits, was recovering its position. The Bible was attacked by Catholics, distrusted by orthodox Protestants and superseded by Antitrinitarians, and within seventy years it was replaced by a new translation. Its rarity today is a consequence of these events.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-102\"><a href=\"#note-102\">102<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-103\"><a href=\"#note-103\">103<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-104\"><a href=\"#note-104\">104<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Yet the Brest Bible left a lasting mark. Through the Gda\u0144sk Bible, its language continued to shape the Polish of Protestant readers, and through its influence on Wujek, it touched even the Catholic tradition. It stands at the beginning of the great age of Polish biblical scholarship and controversy, which produced in a few decades the translations of Leopolita, Budny, Wujek and the Gda\u0144sk revisers, and made the question of how to translate the Bible a matter of public debate. For the history of the biblical text, it is a witness to the speed with which the printed Hebrew and Greek texts and the scholarship of Geneva reached the eastern edges of Latin Christendom.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-105\"><a href=\"#note-105\">105<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-106\"><a href=\"#note-106\">106<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-107\"><a href=\"#note-107\">107<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Bible also has a place in the history of Lithuania and Belarus. Brest, the town where it was printed, is now in Belarus, and the Bible is part of the history of a region where Polish, Lithuanian, Ruthenian and Jewish cultures met. Radziwi\u0142\u0142\u2019s patronage of the Reformation, his printing press at Brest and his support for the Bible are part of the history of the Grand Duchy, whose rulers and nobles played a central role in the cultural life of eastern Europe. The Brest Bible is thus a monument not only of Polish Protestantism but also of the multinational culture of the Polish-Lithuanian state in the age of the Renaissance and the Reformation.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-108\"><a href=\"#note-108\">108<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-109\"><a href=\"#note-109\">109<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-110\"><a href=\"#note-110\">110<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Finally, the story of the Brest Bible raises a question that recurs throughout the history of vernacular Bibles: the relation between a translation and the community that sponsors it. A Bible made for a church is shaped by the theology of that church, and its acceptance depends on the church\u2019s continued existence and confidence. The Brest Bible was made for a Reformed church that, within a few years, divided into two bodies holding incompatible doctrines of God, and neither body could accept it without reservation. The orthodox Reformed suspected it of Antitrinitarian sympathies, and the Antitrinitarians thought it too traditional. A translation that might have become, like the Kralice or Vizsoly Bibles, the lasting possession of a national church, became instead a document of a moment that had passed.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-111\"><a href=\"#note-111\">111<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-112\"><a href=\"#note-112\">112<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-113\"><a href=\"#note-113\">113<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">That moment nonetheless deserves to be remembered. In the years around 1563, scholars at Pi\u0144cz\u00f3w who had come from France, Italy and every part of Poland worked together, under the protection of a Lithuanian prince, to give the Polish-speaking peoples of the Commonwealth the Scriptures in their own language, made from the best texts and with the help of the best scholarship then available. The book they produced was a work of learning, of literary skill and of typographical art. Its descendants, the Gda\u0144sk Bible among Protestants and in some measure the Wujek Bible among Catholics, carried its influence into the modern Polish language, and its surviving copies, scattered across the libraries of Europe, remain witnesses to one of the most remarkable episodes in the history of the Bible in eastern Europe.<sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-114\"><a href=\"#note-114\">114<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-115\"><a href=\"#note-115\">115<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"fn-ref\" id=\"ref-116\"><a href=\"#note-116\">116<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"notes\">Notes<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list post-notes\">\n\n<li id=\"note-1\"><em>Biblia \u015bwi\u0119ta, tho jest, Ksi\u0119gi Starego y Nowego Zakonu, w\u0142a\u015bnie z \u017bydowskiego, Greckiego y \u0141aci\u0144skiego, nowo na Polski j\u0119zyk z pilno\u015bci\u0105 y wiernie wy\u0142o\u017cone<\/em> (Brest: Bernard Wojew\u00f3dka, 1563). <a href=\"#ref-1\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-2\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/brest_bible\">Brest Bible<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-2\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-3\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-3\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-4\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Polish\u2013Lithuanian_Commonwealth\">Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-4\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-5\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania\">Grand Duchy of Lithuania<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-5\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-6\">Norman Davies, <em>God\u2019s Playground: A History of Poland<\/em>, vol. 1, rev. ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). <a href=\"#ref-6\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-7\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Calvinism\">Calvinism<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-7\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-8\">Janusz Tazbir, <em>A State without Stakes: Polish Religious Toleration in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries<\/em> (New York: Ko\u015bciuszko Foundation, 1973). <a href=\"#ref-8\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-9\">George Huntston Williams, <em>The Radical Reformation<\/em>, 3rd ed. (Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, 1992). <a href=\"#ref-9\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-10\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania\">Grand Duchy of Lithuania<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-10\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-11\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/John_Calvin\">John Calvin<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-11\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-12\">George Huntston Williams, <em>The Radical Reformation<\/em>, 3rd ed. (Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, 1992). <a href=\"#ref-12\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-13\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Sigismund_II_Augustus\">Sigismund II Augustus<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-13\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-14\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Council_of_Trent\">Council of Trent<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-14\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-15\">Janusz Tazbir, <em>A State without Stakes: Polish Religious Toleration in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries<\/em> (New York: Ko\u015bciuszko Foundation, 1973). <a href=\"#ref-15\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-16\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-16\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-17\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Polish_language\">Polish language<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-17\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-18\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-18\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-19\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-19\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-20\">Euan Cameron, ed., <em>The New Cambridge History of the Bible<\/em>, vol. 3, <em>From 1450 to 1750<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016). <a href=\"#ref-20\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-21\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-21\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-22\">George Huntston Williams, <em>The Radical Reformation<\/em>, 3rd ed. (Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, 1992). <a href=\"#ref-22\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-23\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-23\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-24\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Polish_Brethren\">Polish Brethren<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-24\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-25\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Socinianism\">Socinianism<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-25\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-26\">Stanis\u0142aw Kot, <em>Socinianism in Poland: The Social and Political Ideas of the Polish Antitrinitarians in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries<\/em>, trans. Earl Morse Wilbur (Boston: Starr King Press, 1957). <a href=\"#ref-26\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-27\">Earl Morse Wilbur, <em>A History of Unitarianism: Socinianism and Its Antecedents<\/em> (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1945). <a href=\"#ref-27\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-28\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-28\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-29\">George Huntston Williams, <em>The Radical Reformation<\/em>, 3rd ed. (Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, 1992). <a href=\"#ref-29\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-30\">Earl Morse Wilbur, <em>A History of Unitarianism: Socinianism and Its Antecedents<\/em> (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1945). <a href=\"#ref-30\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-31\"><em>Biblia \u015bwi\u0119ta, tho jest, Ksi\u0119gi Starego y Nowego Zakonu, w\u0142a\u015bnie z \u017bydowskiego, Greckiego y \u0141aci\u0144skiego, nowo na Polski j\u0119zyk z pilno\u015bci\u0105 y wiernie wy\u0142o\u017cone<\/em> (Brest: Bernard Wojew\u00f3dka, 1563). <a href=\"#ref-31\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-32\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Masoretic_Text\">Masoretic Text<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-32\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-33\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Vulgate\">Vulgate<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-33\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-34\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-34\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-35\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Erasmus\">Erasmus<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-35\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-36\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Geneva_Bible\">Geneva Bible<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-36\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-37\">Euan Cameron, ed., <em>The New Cambridge History of the Bible<\/em>, vol. 3, <em>From 1450 to 1750<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016). <a href=\"#ref-37\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-38\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Geneva_Bible\">Geneva Bible<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-38\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-39\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-english-bibles-between-tyndale-and-1611\/\">The English Bibles between Tyndale and 1611<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-39\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-40\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/John_Calvin\">John Calvin<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-40\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-41\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Brest,_Belarus\">Brest, Belarus<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-41\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-42\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/brest_bible\">Brest Bible<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-42\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-43\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-43\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-44\"><em>Biblia \u015bwi\u0119ta, tho jest, Ksi\u0119gi Starego y Nowego Zakonu, w\u0142a\u015bnie z \u017bydowskiego, Greckiego y \u0141aci\u0144skiego, nowo na Polski j\u0119zyk z pilno\u015bci\u0105 y wiernie wy\u0142o\u017cone<\/em> (Brest: Bernard Wojew\u00f3dka, 1563). <a href=\"#ref-44\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-45\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/brest_bible\">Brest Bible<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-45\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-46\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-46\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-47\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/brest_bible\">Brest Bible<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-47\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-48\">Janusz Tazbir, <em>A State without Stakes: Polish Religious Toleration in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries<\/em> (New York: Ko\u015bciuszko Foundation, 1973). <a href=\"#ref-48\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-49\">Norman Davies, <em>God\u2019s Playground: A History of Poland<\/em>, vol. 1, rev. ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). <a href=\"#ref-49\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-50\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Polish_language\">Polish language<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-50\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-51\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-51\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-52\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-52\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-53\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-53\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-54\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Polish_language\">Polish language<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-54\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-55\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Masoretic_Text\">Masoretic Text<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-55\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-56\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-antwerp-paris-and-london-polyglots\/\">The Antwerp, Paris and London Polyglots<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-56\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-57\">Euan Cameron, ed., <em>The New Cambridge History of the Bible<\/em>, vol. 3, <em>From 1450 to 1750<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016). <a href=\"#ref-57\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-58\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Polish\u2013Lithuanian_Commonwealth\">Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-58\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-59\">Norman Davies, <em>God\u2019s Playground: A History of Poland<\/em>, vol. 1, rev. ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). <a href=\"#ref-59\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-60\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-60\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-61\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Vulgate\">Vulgate<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-61\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-62\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Council_of_Trent\">Council of Trent<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-62\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-63\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-sixtine-and-clementine-vulgates\/\">The Sixtine and Clementine Vulgates<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-63\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-64\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-64\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-65\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-65\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-66\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Masoretic_Text\">Masoretic Text<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-66\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-67\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania\">Grand Duchy of Lithuania<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-67\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-68\">Norman Davies, <em>God\u2019s Playground: A History of Poland<\/em>, vol. 1, rev. ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). <a href=\"#ref-68\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-69\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Sigismund_II_Augustus\">Sigismund II Augustus<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-69\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-70\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/John_Calvin\">John Calvin<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-70\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-71\">George Huntston Williams, <em>The Radical Reformation<\/em>, 3rd ed. (Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, 1992). <a href=\"#ref-71\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-72\">Janusz Tazbir, <em>A State without Stakes: Polish Religious Toleration in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries<\/em> (New York: Ko\u015bciuszko Foundation, 1973). <a href=\"#ref-72\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-73\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Council_of_Trent\">Council of Trent<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-73\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-74\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-74\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-75\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-sixtine-and-clementine-vulgates\/\">The Sixtine and Clementine Vulgates<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-75\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-76\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Polish_Brethren\">Polish Brethren<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-76\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-77\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Socinianism\">Socinianism<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-77\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-78\">George Huntston Williams, <em>The Radical Reformation<\/em>, 3rd ed. (Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, 1992). <a href=\"#ref-78\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-79\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-79\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-80\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-80\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-81\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-81\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-82\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-bible-of-kralice-and-the-unity-of-the-brethren\/\">The Bible of Kralice and the Unity of the Brethren<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-82\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-83\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-83\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-84\">Euan Cameron, ed., <em>The New Cambridge History of the Bible<\/em>, vol. 3, <em>From 1450 to 1750<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016). <a href=\"#ref-84\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-85\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-bible-of-kralice-and-the-unity-of-the-brethren\/\">The Bible of Kralice and the Unity of the Brethren<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-85\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-86\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-vizsoly-bible-of-1590\/\">The Vizsoly Bible of 1590<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-86\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-87\">Euan Cameron, ed., <em>The New Cambridge History of the Bible<\/em>, vol. 3, <em>From 1450 to 1750<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016). <a href=\"#ref-87\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-88\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-bible-of-kralice-and-the-unity-of-the-brethren\/\">The Bible of Kralice and the Unity of the Brethren<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-88\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-89\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-vizsoly-bible-of-1590\/\">The Vizsoly Bible of 1590<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-89\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-90\">Janusz Tazbir, <em>A State without Stakes: Polish Religious Toleration in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries<\/em> (New York: Ko\u015bciuszko Foundation, 1973). <a href=\"#ref-90\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-91\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Geneva_Bible\">Geneva Bible<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-91\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-92\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-reina-valera-bible-and-the-bear-bible-of-1569\/\">The Reina-Valera Bible and the Bear Bible of 1569<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-92\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-93\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-english-bibles-between-tyndale-and-1611\/\">The English Bibles between Tyndale and 1611<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-93\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-94\">Janusz Tazbir, <em>A State without Stakes: Polish Religious Toleration in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries<\/em> (New York: Ko\u015bciuszko Foundation, 1973). <a href=\"#ref-94\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-95\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Polish_language\">Polish language<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-95\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-96\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-96\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-97\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-97\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-98\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/brest_bible\">Brest Bible<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-98\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-99\"><em>Biblia \u015bwi\u0119ta, tho jest, Ksi\u0119gi Starego y Nowego Zakonu, w\u0142a\u015bnie z \u017bydowskiego, Greckiego y \u0141aci\u0144skiego, nowo na Polski j\u0119zyk z pilno\u015bci\u0105 y wiernie wy\u0142o\u017cone<\/em> (Brest: Bernard Wojew\u00f3dka, 1563). <a href=\"#ref-99\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-100\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-100\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-101\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Polish_language\">Polish language<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-101\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-102\">Janusz Tazbir, <em>A State without Stakes: Polish Religious Toleration in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries<\/em> (New York: Ko\u015bciuszko Foundation, 1973). <a href=\"#ref-102\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-103\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Council_of_Trent\">Council of Trent<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-103\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-104\">Stanis\u0142aw Kot, <em>Socinianism in Poland: The Social and Political Ideas of the Polish Antitrinitarians in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries<\/em>, trans. Earl Morse Wilbur (Boston: Starr King Press, 1957). <a href=\"#ref-104\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-105\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-105\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-106\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-106\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-107\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-antwerp-paris-and-london-polyglots\/\">The Antwerp, Paris and London Polyglots<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-107\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-108\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania\">Grand Duchy of Lithuania<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-108\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-109\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Brest,_Belarus\">Brest, Belarus<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-109\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-110\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/cyril-and-methodius-the-slavonic-bible-and-the-gennadius-bible-of-1499\/\">Cyril and Methodius, the Slavonic Bible and the Gennadius Bible of 1499<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-110\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-111\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/Polish_Brethren\">Polish Brethren<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-111\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-112\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-bible-of-kralice-and-the-unity-of-the-brethren\/\">The Bible of Kralice and the Unity of the Brethren<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-112\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-113\">See also \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/the-vizsoly-bible-of-1590\/\">The Vizsoly Bible of 1590<\/a>\u201d on this site. <a href=\"#ref-113\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-114\">Maria Kossowska, <em>Biblia w j\u0119zyku polskim<\/em>, 2 vols. (Pozna\u0144: Ksi\u0119garnia \u015aw. Wojciecha, 1968\u201369). <a href=\"#ref-114\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-115\">David A. Frick, <em>Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation: Chapters in the History of the Controversies (1551\u20131632)<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). <a href=\"#ref-115\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n<li id=\"note-116\">Grokipedia, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/grokipedia.com\/page\/brest_bible\">Brest Bible<\/a>\u201d. <a href=\"#ref-116\" aria-label=\"Back to text\">\u21a9<\/a><\/li>\n\n<\/ol>\n\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>On 4 September 1563 the printer Bernard Wojew\u00f3dka completed, at Brest on the river Bug in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the printing of a complete Bible in Polish. The book was&hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":838,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[13],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-832","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-reformation-dissent"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/832","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=832"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/832\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/838"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=832"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=832"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/masoretes.online\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=832"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}